Motivation

Cognitive theories suggest that our motivations are the result of rational decisions. One’s thinking (cognitions) affects your expectations and behaviors. The amount of time you are willing to study for a test (motivation) is based on your expectation of doing well on the test. People are not just driven toward goals but rather chose goals that mesh with ones needs and desires. The person has the ability to make choices and to evaluate different options and then select a particular goal. Cognitive theories also look at motivation as being extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside the individual. It is an external reward such as achieving a good grade or making a lot of money. Intrinsic motivation comes from the task itself or the nature of the activity. It includes pride in your accomplishments and achievements as well as pleasure derived from the task itself. In reality both can come into play in any give situation. We may work hard to get promoted and receive high pay but may also truly enjoy what we are doing and what we are accomplishing. Intrinsic motivation is more enduring than extrinsic motivation. This theory also takes into consideration the fact that people are curious and like to explore and learn about their environment. An important outgrowth of cognitive theories of emotions has been the development of cognitive behavior therapy (See Chapter 11). Essentially they try to help people identify and change their thoughts, emotions and behaviors that are associated with any perceived problems with adjustment and daily living.

Incentive Theory

Incentive theory suggests that the desire to obtain a particular goal (drive reduction) is what motivates behavior. This is not unlike Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning (See Chapter 3) that is based on the notion that reinforced behavior is likely to be repeated which punished behavior is apt to be decreased. The amount of effort exerted to achieve the goal is a function of the amount of drive present. However, ones expectations of success also plays a role in the amount of energy one is willing to expend. If the drive is high but the expectation (incentive) for success is low, little may be done by the individual. I would like to obtain a million dollars but see little probability of being successful so I do nothing toward the goal. If someone is not working toward a goal incentive theory suggests that it is necessary to increase the need or increase the perception of being successful if the energy to achieve the goal is expended. Incentive theory distinguishes between the expectation of success (incentive motivation) and the strength of the need for the goal (drive motivation).

Cognitive Processes II

When we learn a way to solve problems we tend to apply those strategies to similar ones. This is often very successful. However, if a more creative method is needed we many not be able to break out of these old approaches. Mental or Perceptual set is the tendency to continue using learned patterns of problem solving. Closely related is the concept of functional fixedness. Functional fixedness is the tendency to think of an object only in its typical manner of use. In actuality it may limit our ability to even see that something might be used in a different way. If we draw conclusions about specifics based on general principles we are using deductive reasoning. Reasoning is cognition with a purpose. In deductive reasoning you have a general concept and use logical steps and assumptions to arrive as specific answer. For example, people who study logic would start with a basic premise and then proceed to logically deduce a solution. For example, All men are mortal (general premise). Socrates is a man (factual premise). Therefore Socrates is mortal (logical deduction). Inductive reasoning starts with the known facts and attempts to infer the unknown. This is like circumstantial evidence. When you went to bed last night and looked out the window there was no snow on the ground. When you woke up in the morning and lookout there was snow on the ground. You could logically conclude that it snowed last night; however, there may be other explanations such as a friend playing a joke on you who dumped it there while you were sleeping. Inductive reasoning does not allow us to reach a logically certain conclusion but it does allow us to reach a possible and most probable answer.

Cognitive Processes

The mental activities involved in thinking, reasoning and problem-solving have been referred to as cognitive processes. These mental activities have also included the use of memory and language to describe decision-making.
Thinking is the manipulation of information mentally. This information can take the form of words, sounds, imagery or some other modality. Thinking allows us to solve problems and make decisions. We also tend to develop concepts. Concepts are the categorization of things that share common properties or characteristics. We don’t have to see every chair in the world to recognize a new one. Some people have a good ability to create new and novel uses for things. Creativity is the ability to combine ideas or things in novel ways. The creative person sees unique uses for mundane things and can also approach and solve problems that require looking at concepts in a different way. Creativity also involves divergent thinking. Divergent thinking is the ability to generate unusual but applicable solutions to problems. It is more unconventional and the person tends to see new, unusual and unconventional relationships. A great deal of learning and education focuses on finding the single right solution. Convergent thinking is the ability to use our knowledge and logic to find the right solution. It is logical and focused on problem solving by seeking a conclusion or answer.

Enhancing Learning and Improving Memory

Repetition and rehearsal are also effective ways to keep new information in STM long enough for it to be stored in LTM. If you learn something and do not rehearse it you tend to forget around 50 to 75 percent of new learning within a 24-hour period. If you repeat it several different times over several days it tends to be retained. This distributed practice, which spaces out the repetition, is generally more effective that long study periods, known as massed practice, or “cramming” to students. However, cramming is better than not studying at all. It’s just that retention will be less over time. Repetitive practice can also result in overlearning which also improves long term recall. Overlearning can significantly reduce forgetting and errors. Performers practice their exercise or presentation several times a day for months or even years. A related issue is part versus whole learning. Is it better to break the material down into smaller pieces or is it better to try and learn all of it a one time? As a general rule part learning is superior to whole learning for several reasons. Part learning gets away from the problem of massed practice. Also part learning allows you to maintain interest. If the parts are easily differentiated, that is also an advantage. For example, the best way to become good at playing golf is not to play a lot of rounds but to practice the parts that make up the whole. Putting, irons and woods are the three major clubs and each requires a different skill. Once they have been mastered they you can combine them into the whole and play a round of golf. There are some disadvantages in that linking the parts together may, in some cases, require additional learning. If you were learning the lines of a poem or play then additional memorization would be required to put the whole thing together.
Closely related is the concept of knowledge of results or feedback. The more immediate the connection between your performance and its outcome the better it is to improve learning and memory. Unfortunately, many times a test is taken it may be several weeks before you obtain your grade, and even then you may not get specific feedback regarding which items were right or wrong. The practice tests at the end of each chapter provide immediate feedback concerning your performance. If you get the item correct that’s great. If not go back to the chapter and see why you missed that particular item. This approach will clarify misconceptions and also result in superior test performance and, of course, a well-deserved good grade.

On Creativity V

Creativity is not just a tool, it is a way of life, properly developed it will help you break the cycle of a monotonous existence, letting you enjoy more with the people you love, bring solutions where solutions didn’t seem to exist, help you tackle down difficulties affecting your business, your job or your relationships. Creativity will help you anticipate, break paradigms, find innovative ways to be more productive, recycle old ideas for new ones, discover solutions, build your wealth, reach your goals, or solve your problems. As a result, you will become a much more valuable asset to your company, you will become a better husband or parent, and a more fulfilled person. Your creative mind will always be hungry for knowledge, solutions, and innovations once you tap into the unlimited potential of your imagination. Stimulate your senses, visualize with your mind’s eye, explore new horizons, have an open mind to learn new and interesting things. Make of exploration, experimentation, curiosity, and travel part of your on going learning experience in life. A trip to the bookstore might give you the answer to the problems you face at work, or can also be a catalyst to propel a new ground breaking idea. You never know what you can get out of that trip to Paris or Africa, or that book sitting on the bookshelf of the library you have bypassed everyday on you way to work, even meeting someone new on the street may lead to a whole new enlightening experience which you might have missed had not been receptive to that person. The mind will always crave for knowledge if you expose it to new experiences and new information, and the more you feed it with both visual and verbal-linguistic information the more versatile, more original, more sensitive, more creative it will turn out to be. Let creativity help you embrace change and learn from your mistakes, don’t be afraid to experiment, to search for the new, the unknown, the unpredictable, the never tried before, give yourself a chance to change your life through the positive and mighty power of creativity. Don’t underestimate your ability to conceptualize, discern, envision, imagine, guide, or daydream.
Don’t let your brain power remain in a state of idleness. Develop strategies, be a warrior, take chances, recognize opportunity when it comes knocking on your door. The mountain belongs to those who dare to reach its summit and creativity will help you to get up there. Now be prepared for a journey that’s going to change the way you see, think and feel about yourself and the world.

On Creativity IV

As we can see, sometimes vision, insight, imagination, compassion, creativity, intuition, belief, knowledge, a non-conformist attitude, and the determination to make something meaningful out of our lives can lead us to greater things we though of possible. Most people don’t realize the creative powers lying in a dormant state in their minds. More than ever before, creativity is one of the most important assets a person may possess. Due to the complex socio-economical hierarchies of our society, in addition to the practice of business at a global scale, institutions, corporations, and establishments need individuals who are capable of generating fresh and innovative ideas in every imaginable field that is taking part in the emerging global economy, which is constantly changing at a fast rate. Still, if you believe creativity is a “God given gift” reserved to just a few, this false belief has kept you from developing your next million dollars idea, write the next best seller, invent the hottest toy in the industry, or finding better ways to improve your personal relationships. It is time to break the chains that have held you back in the darkness of self-doubt and start utilizing your creative potential. Take advantage of creativity to solve problems, to discover what hasn’t been discovered, to experiment with ideas, concepts and perceptions, to challenge your knowledge and foster innovation, to increase your wealth, or build better relationships. You possess all the main traits that make up an insightful, imaginative and creative person. Your personal experiences, education, environment, knowledge and common sense will determine the way you perceive and conceptualize the world, which will also determine how your brain handles the creative process. If you feel your mind hasn’t been exposed to a nurturing environment or a college education, don’t look at it as a limitation, rather take it as a challenge, if there is anything new you want to find out about, go out to get the facts. Do research, read books in the subject, talk to people in the field, surf the internet, your possibilities for research are greater than ever before. You’ll be amazed when you see how your mind changes with knowledge. Give yourself permission to be creative, all you need is some understanding of how your brain works and a positive attitude to let yourself into a creative state of mind. As we are expected to perform in a pre-arranged systematic course of learning where the “logical/analytical” skills are highly emphasized, we pay little attention to the subtleties of the right brain’s ability to dream, fantasize, and imagine. Ironically, school does not prepare us to deal with the emotional issues in our lives. Learning how to deal with our emotions is very important to keep a healthy balance between our professional and private life within the context of our mental health. Your academic scores will be of little help when trying to solve a difficult relationship or when your life is in turmoil. How do you face these challenges? You have to rely in more than just your intellectual capacity to solve these problems and start listening more to the inner voice of your intuition and spirituality.

On Creativity III

Watch young children play, they excel in originality and creative ideas. There are no rules that hold them back, their minds flow freely without the restrictions of a logical and systematic thinking pattern we all eventually become victims of. They are curious by nature, they are explorers and artists, they create fantasy worlds and build sand castles. They can go to the moon back and forth faster than the speed of light just by using their imaginations. Their inquisitive minds are always craving for answers in response to the stimulation the receive from their environment. They are fresh, unbiased and playful by nature. Their minds are not driven by the linearity, logical thinking pattern which is very common among grown ups, they experience the world with the playful, imaginative, inquisitive right hemisphere. They perceive their environment with wonderment, amazement and innocence. Children get acquainted very soon with sand, mud, rain, finger paint, crayons, clay, and they are not afraid of showing it. And believe it or not, at one point in our early life we fitted the above description. Now, looking at ourselves, where is that sense of wonderment we once had? Where did it go? Is it suppressed? Is it lost?. Why have we become so shy to let our inner child show off? Where did you hide your desire to find out what lies at the end of the rainbow? How about finger painting, counting rain drops, or chasing clouds? When did we stop using our imaginations and why? As we got older we stopped being imaginative and began to conform to a set of rules which were imposed to us in the classroom where we were expected to follow strict behavioral and learning rules. As time goes on and we become more “academically” inclined, we criticize those who emphasize imagination over knowledge, we even have names for them: “dreamers, idealists, crazy, weirdos” and so forth. What’s your own reaction to a dreamer, to that person who wants to break the rules of convention by showing non conformity? Someone who goes against the criteria of logic? Sad to say, the biased intellectual and academic establishments have always denied an opportunity to those who they consider idealists, or day dreamers with no hard facts and figures to support their ideas. Consider the following case: In the early seventies a Princeton University student proposed an idea to his professor of economics as part of an academic assignment. The professor thought of the idea as impractical, very “questionable.” Far from giving up, the student implemented his idea a few years later. Days of struggle and frustration followed by, but the young man’s determination to succeed despite the odds he had to face from the beginning kept him going. His ingenuity, insight and hard work paid off overtime. His company became one of the best commercial successes in modern times. The name of the company? Federal Express. If we take the time to study some of the major breakthroughs in history, indeed they were possible thanks to the determination and passion of these dreamers who went against the odds and emerged victorious.

Creativity II

Take a few minutes and ask yourself the following questions: Why is creativity so important? How can creativity help us face the challenges in our everyday lives? What are the benefits of creativity? Can it be learned or is it innate? How can we become more creative? Ultimately, what is creativity and how does it work? As we leave our childhood behind to enter the young adult stage, we are forced to emphasize logic over imagination, analysis over intuition, numbers over rhythms, thus suppressing our innate abilities that lead to the development of a creative frame of mind. Most people instinctively feel there is a creative force in them. They feel there is a need to create, a natural instinct to express their deepest emotions and passions, but often times they don???t know how to truly channelize those feelings externally. Their minds have block off their imaginations and creative energies by building walls of self-doubt, misconceptions and self-criticism as they have been conditioned since an early age to accept the assumption that only talented people possess the gift of creativity, perpetuating within themselves the myth that “creativity is bestowed upon a few chosen individuals.” This kind of thinking just helps them reinforce the belief that they belong to the “non-creative types” category. They think, and worst of all, they believe, creativity is a “God given gift,” reserved to just a few. The truth is, creativity is much more mundane and diverse than showing a particular ability in any of the highly acclaimed disciplines of art, literature, science, medicine, architecture, or any other field where creativity is best portrayed. The power of creativity is not reserved to a few chosen individuals who have made important discoveries and remarkable contributions to the world throughout history. Creativity is in all of us, it is part of human nature, ironically very few people make the most of their creative potential. The best way for you to become a more creative person is to get rid of all the misconceptions, stereotypes or myths which have kept you from utilizing your innate creative abilities. Immerse yourself in a creative state of mind, think and believe of yourself as a creative person with potential to do great things, give yourself permission to be more creative. Creativity is a process that can be compared to drawing, whether you have talent or not, the process of learning how to draw is an acquired skill that involves mechanical ability and visual perception. Under the guidance of academic instruction you become more aware of the intentions of these mechanical and visual processes by learning how to observe and how to use your tools. Once you dominate these two elements, your drawing skills will improve a hundred fold. By understanding both the technical and artistic concepts of drawing, you can manipulate your tools and direct your ability according to your creative impulses. Constant practice will make you a master. It is the same with creativity. Just like drawing, creativity is a visual process which can be honed with practice by learning how to blend, juxtapose, perceive, anticipate, observe, relate, adapt, rearrange, reverse or magnify your ideas. To get the most of your creative potential, you need to understand the nature of your brain and learn how to see with your mind’s eye by using your perceptual skills. We don’t need to have the brains and skills of a Michelangelo or Da Vinci to develop a creative mind set, nor you have to be a scientist, artist or a member of the academia to consider yourself a creative being, for instance, our everyday life gives us plenty of opportunities to exercise our creativity, the creative spectrum ranges from finding ways how to manage your time more efficiently to designing the hottest virtual reality game in the market. How you take up every challenge you face on a daily basis will be influenced by your ingenuity, imagination and versatility of thought. We can become more insightful if we take the time to learn how our mind works and how we can help it to become more aware and receptive of the creative process. With the use of certain techniques we can enhance the brain’s perceptual and cognitive abilities which allow us to help it stretch our imagination.

Synchronicity

It refers to those times when you are looking for an idea or answer and you unexpectedly experience an event or an string of events that perfectly solves your problem.

DEFINITION:
Carl Jung termed the definition of synchronicity to the act of experiencing events that are interpreted as “meaningful coincidences.” Carl Jung said, ‘meaningful coincidences are not the same as pure chance -the more they multiply and the grater and more exact the correspondence is…they are no longer regarded as pure chance, but for the lack of causal explanation, have to be thought of as meaningful arrangements.’

APPLICATIONS:
Begin to pay attention to synchronous events that happen to you especially when you:
• meet people.
• browse through all types of magazines
• read newspapers
• watch TV
• visit new places
Noticing such events marks the beginning of greater awareness of synchronicity. The more you become aware of synchronicity around you the more likely you will be to experience it yourself.

TECHNIQUES:
As you develop your skills of observation and awareness, begin applying the potential of synchronicity to your own projects. Each day stop and ask yourself the following questions:
• What have I seen, read or done today that relates to another idea or theme in my life right now?
• Who have I met today and what have I learned from that person?
• How can I apply what I’ve learned from the people I encountered today to something I am already working on?
• How can I apply what I’ve learned from newspapers and magazine articles I encountered today to something I am already working on?
• How can I apply what I’ve learned from TV programs or movies I watched today to something I am already working on?
• How can I apply what I’ve learned from experiences, feelings, perceptions, insights and impressions drawn from local and foreign places I have visited to something I am already working on?
• Make an effort to talk to people who are out of your comfort zone. Anyone whom you would not normally strike up a conversation. You might find out that ideas, suggestions, impressions, insights or connections they may have to other people, will be of great value to your creative endeavors.
• Stop living in ‘Automatic Pilot.’ When you live in ‘Automatic Pilot’ you are more likely to fail to notice:
a) What is new around you.
b) The value of the seed of a new idea or a new opportunity that passed you by because you could not see it as such.
c) The value of chance meetings and meaningful arrangements.
• Be flexible how you categorize life’s experience. Many events in your life can be interpreted differently, but you keep seeing and understanding them in the same way. By doing so, you completely miss the novelty factor, the opportunity to learn something new and open yourself to a new experience.
• See everything from perspectives other than your own. Being able to see life from more than one perspective makes you receptive to synchronous encounters with other people because you become more willing to tolerate opinions that diverge from your own.
• Making contact through synchronicity. The most powerful way to enhance your creativity through people is to heighten your awareness of the amazing opportunities embedded in every meeting and conversation you have. You are like a ball in the pinball machine of life, continuously bounding from encounter to another. Each person you come across has the potential to send you in a new direction, which can spark your next great idea or lead you to new insights about your work. Some people inspire directly, others inspire you accidentally, through a nonchalant comment that you realize is valuable to your creative challenges.

Workshop:
• Write down an idea you have and for a week seek to find connections between your idea and the deeper meaning of any events, reading materials (newspaper, magazines, books, etc.), places or people you encounter.